8.12.2,4. HYDROCARBONS

COAL

In this TB Forum post www.thunderbolts.info/forum3/phpBB3/viewtopic.php?f=11&t=13&p=2632#p2632
I show the gist of Cardona's findings re coal formation and other hydrocarbons. Cardona seems to have supposed that coal formation required hydrocarbons to rain down through the atmosphere from a Saturn flare-up, mixing with vegetable matter to form coal etc. That is, conventional thinking is that there is way more coal than what all of the vegetation on Earth could produce. However, the following creationist article argues that there likely was enough vegetation on Earth at the time of the Great Flood to produce all of the world's coal. In that case hydrocarbons raining down would not have been needed to produce coal. And Thomas Gold explained that petroleum likely forms from hydrocarbons within the Earth. But I need to see if tar pits etc around the world could have formed that way. It appears to be highly likely that hydrocarbons do rain down from comets etc on occasion, such as from Biela's comet which caused the Chicago fire in 1871 and other fires in WI and MI and possibly stretching all the way to the U.S. Southwest. The following article also mentions that 150 degree Centigrade heat is needed to form coal more rapidly, but such heat may not have been available during the Flood, except in areas of volcanism etc.

COAL: Creationist Sources

Coal beds and Noah’s Flood
by Andrew Snelling
creation.com/coal-beds-and-noahs-flood
_Water sprayed on an exposed seam settles dust and prevents a fire hazard with explosive coal dust.
_Coal beds formed from plant debris catastrophically buried by Noah’s Flood about 4,500 years ago? Evolutionists believe that the material in coal beds accumulated over millions of years in quiet swamp environments like the Everglades of Florida. Evolutionary geologists often object to the creationists’ explanation of coal bed formation, so what are their arguments and what answers do we give to them?
_Some geologists have claimed that even if all the vegetation on earth was suddenly converted to coal this would make a coal deposit only 1-3% of the known coal reserves on earth. Hence at least 33 Noah’s Floods are needed, staggered in time, to generate our known coal beds. Therefore a single Noah’s Flood cannot be the cause of coal formation.
_This argument is based on valid estimates of the volume of vegetation currently on today’s land surfaces. But it assumes that at least 12 metres of vegetation are needed to produce one metre of coal (eg. Holmes, 1965). Modern research shows that less than two metres of vegetation are needed to make one metre of coal. Some observations made by coal geologists working in mines (e.g. the compaction of coal around clay ‘balls’ included in some coal beds) suggest that the compaction ratio is probably much less than 2:1 and more likely very close to 1:1. These observations destroy this objection to coal bed formation during Noah’s Flood, since instead of today’s vegetation volume only compacting down to 1-3% of known coal reserves, today’s vegetation volume would compact down to at least 30% of the known coal reserves. But where did the remainder come from?
_Two other factors are very relevant here. The evolutionists’ argument based on the volume of vegetation on today’s land surface ignores the fact that 60% of today’s land surface is covered by deserts or only sparse vegetation. In addition, there are the vast icy wastes of Antarctica beneath which are rock layers containing thick coal beds. So if all of today’s land surface was covered with the lush vegetation suggested by Antarctica’s coal beds, then the volume of such vegetation on today’s land surface would be sufficient to produce at least another 50% of the known coal reserves. So what about the remaining 10%?
_But this all assumes that the area of land surface available for vegetation growth has always been the same.
But this all assumes that the area of land surface available for vegetation growth has always been the same. This assumption simply is not correct. In Genesis 1:9-10 we are told of God’s work at the outset of the third day of Creation Week, when He gathered the waters (which initially covered the entire globe) into one place so as to let the dry land appear. God called the waters ‘seas’ (plural), but they were gathered together in one place. This implies that, instead of land masses surrounded by seas (today’s world), in the pre-Flood world there was one sea surrounded by one large land mass. The language used in Scripture also implies that there was probably more land area then on the face of the globe than ‘seas’ (see Taylor, 1982). This being the case therefore, it is likely that there was at least twice as much land area available for vegetation growth in the pre-Flood world compared with today’s world (i.e. at least 60% land versus 40% sea in the pre-Flood world compared with today’s roughly 30% land versus 70% oceans). If then this vast land area was under lush vegetation, then we can account for 100% of the known coal reserves.
_A better way
_But there is another way of comparing vegetation growth and volume with the known coal beds, a way that is probably far more reliable, and that is by comparing the stored energy in vegetation with that in coal. International authority on solar energy, Mary Archer, has stated that the amount of solar energy falling on the earth’s surface in 14 days is equal to the known energy of the world’s supply of fossil fuels. She also said that only . 03 % of the solar energy arriving at the earth’s surface is stored as chemical energy in vegetation through photosynthetic processes. (Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, Vol. 5, 1975, p. 17) From this information we can estimate how many years of today’s plant growth would be required to produce the stored energy equivalent in today’s known coal reserves:
_Divide 14 days by .03%
i.e. (14 x 100)/.03 days equals 46,667 days or 128 years of solar input via photosynthesis.
So we can conclude that only 128 years of plant growth at today’s rate and volume is all that is required to provide the energy equivalent stored in today’s known coal beds! There was, of course, ample time between Creation and Noah’s Flood for such plant growth to occur — 1600 years, in fact.
_Conclusion
_Either way, whether by comparison of energy stored in vegetation growth and in coal (i.e. the time factor), or by vegetation growth, climate, geography, land area and compaction ratio (i.e. the volume factor), we can show conclusively that the evolutionist’s objection is totally invalid. There was ample time, space and vegetation growth for one Noah’s Flood to produce all of today’s known coal beds.
_References
Holmes, A., 1965. Principles of Physical Geology, Nelson, London.
Taylor, C., 1982. ‘Linguistics, Genesis and Evolution, Part Three: the Seas’, Creation 4(4):49–50, 1982; creation.com/linguistics-and-genesis.

Coal beds and Noah’s Flood part 2
by Andrew Snelling
creation.com/coal-beds-and-noahs-flood-part-2
_Evolutionists suggest that coal beds were formed at various times millions of years ago in quiet swamp environments. Evolutionary geologists say the creationist explanation which uses a single worldwide flood only a few thousand years ago is not adequate to explain the formation of the world’s coal seams. In a previous issue of Creation 8(3):20-21 we began answering these objections (See Coal beds and Noah’s Flood). Here we look at further answers to these objections. The Illinois Basin (USA) contains 80 coal seams separated by thick sequences of sedimentary rock. So we would need to have had 80 biblical floods here alone.wikipedia.orgpoint-aconi-seam
_Bituminous coal bed is exposed between rock layers at Point Aconi, Nova Scotia.
Dr Steven Austin1 has proposed an explanation for the formation of multiple coal beds separated by other sedimentary rocks. He originally presented this in his Ph.D. thesis at the prestigious Penn State University in 1979. Dr Austin’s explanation shows that such seams can be formed from huge mats of buoyant vegetable debris floating on the waters during the violent watery catastrophe of Noah’s Flood. The vegetation, including whole forests, had been ripped up by raging flood waters. We see this on a small scale even today in local floods, which are capable of producing floating islands of vegetation and/or vegetable debris (e.g. in the Amazon River basin of South America).
_As the bark, leaves, twigs and logs in such mats became waterlogged, they sank to the sea floor beneath to be buried and ultimately to form coal beds. Other sediments were then washed in by the waters beneath the floating mats to cover these beds of vegetation. Further vegetable material in the mats continued to become waterlogged and to sink, and a depositional cycle of events was established. This explanation can easily account for multiple coal beds stacked between other sediments, both fossiliferous and non-fossiliferous.
_As the bark, leaves, twigs and logs in such mats became waterlogged, they sank to the sea floor beneath to be buried and ultimately to form coal beds.
_Dr Austin has now expanded his original research. He has found by extensive additional research on coal seams across the USA that his floating vegetable debris model is consistent with the evidence throughout the United States, even in the Illinois Basin with its 80 stacked coal beds. Similar research is under way in Australia, and already we know that Dr Austin’s model can be applied—with the addition of volcanism as a factor both in destruction of forests and deposition of vegetable debris, logs and ash layers—to the important Newcastle coalfield on the central coast of New South Wales.
_We confidently expect that this floating vegetable debris model will virtually have universal application, along with variations such as the role of volcanism, as research continues on coal beds in sedimentary basins worldwide.
_The evolutionists’ objection based on the occurrence of multiple stacked coal beds in sedimentary basins worldwide is thus invalid. One Noah’s Flood can account for all the sediment layers in these basins.

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Floating forest hypothesis fails to explain later and larger coal beds
creation.com/floating-forests-cannot-explain-most-coal
...
_Floating forest hypothesis cannot explain coal
_One of the primary purposes of the floating forest hypothesis is to try and explain the coal beds found in Carboniferous rocks globally.4,5 However, recent research has demonstrated that the floating forest model fails to explain the origin of these thinner Carboniferous coals.1,2 To make matters worse, the advocates of the floating forest hypothesis have made no attempt to account for the thickest and most extensive coals in the world. Coals found in Cretaceous and Paleogene rocks globally have been largely ignored. Creation scientists should not dogmatically hold on to a hypothesis that cannot adequately explain even the smallest subset of coal deposits,1,2 let alone later and thicker coal beds.8,10 An acceptable Flood-based coal model should provide an explanation for all coals.
_New Flood model for coal
_Recently, a new model for allochthonous coal formation has begun to be developed.1 This new model harkens back to, and is not too dissimilar from, the concepts of the early pioneers in creation science.14,15 Acccording to this model, forests of lycopod trees apparently fringed the lowest elevation levels of the pre-Flood continent(s).1 As the water levels rose during the Flood (Genesis 7:17–21), these trees were likely torn loose and deposited en masse, becoming coal within the Carboniferous rock layers.1 A few lycopod forests, like the site in Glasgow, Scotland, were merely sheared off, transporting the tree trunks while leaving the rooted stumps in place.2 Later, as the Floodwaters increased in height, trees like the metasequoia that grew at higher elevations were torn loose, transported, and deposited as allochthonous coal beds in the later Flood rocks of the Cretaceous and Paleogene systems. These later deposits became the thick coal beds in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming and Montana, USA.

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Coal, volcanism and Noah’s Flood
creation.com/coal-volcanism-and-noahs-flood
...
Cranfield et al.17 also indicate that fossil wood fragments are features of the Walloon Coal Measures. Indeed, even small vertical logs have been observed on top of some of the seams in the Oakleigh mine. Figure 10 illustrates one particular log that was discovered in the tuffaceous sandstone above the topmost seam (see Fig. 9). Both the fragmented nature of the broken log, and the character of the sediments in which it was found, confirm that it is a drift log, that is, it didn’t grow in situ but was deposited with the sediments enclosing it. What is also significant about this log is that it has hard black coal on the outside, and low quality, very woody brown coal and iron oxides on the inside. Many places still show the presence of tree rings (and splinters). The presence of both black coal and brown coal in the one log, and also the very fine lining of black coal on either side of a clay-filled fracture that penetrates across the inside of the log (see Fig. 10), quite clearly indicates that the coalification of the wood in this log did not necessarily result from exposure to temperature and pressure over a long period of time. Both these factors (temperature and pressure) would have reached equilibrium throughout such a thin log over any extended period of time. The presence of high rank black coal only around the outside (and lining the fracture) indicates
(a) that the process of coalification was so rapid that there was insufficient time for coalification conditions to reach equilibrium throughout the log, or
(b) that there was a difference in conditions between the outside and the inside of the log which resulted in coalification advancing further around the circumference of the log, or
(c) both of these conditions.
_A very significant implication of these observations is that if coalification resulted from the log being exposed to a rapid heating event, then this would also imply that the sediments surrounding the log were not only rapidly heated, but they also cooled rapidly: that is, they rapidly lost sufficient heat so as to drop below the temperature at which the inside of the log would have also reached the same advanced stage of coalification as the log’s outer circumference. In other words, there was rapid heat loss on a regional scale.
_Volcanism and rapid coalification
_Figure 10a. A broken log found in tuffaceous sandstone above the topmost coal seam at Oakleigh near Rosewood (see Fig. 9). A general view of two pieces of the log which consist mainly of woody brown coal.
See Figure 10b.
_The observations of a volcanic eruption at Mount St. Helens, the Toutle River ash and mud flows which deposited conifer logs and roots in apparent growth positions, and the Spirit Lake phenomenon which produced vertical growth position conifer logs with or without roots in tuffaceous sediments and conifer bark rich debris have been shown to be quite clearly related as depositional models to the vertical pine tree logs with a pine bark and clay-rich coal and jutting into overlying tuff layers at Swansea and Quarries heads, the Awaba ‘fossil forest’ marker bed of similar pine logs but in chert largely devoid of other vegetable matter, and the Oakleigh drift log consisting of both black and brown coal that was discovered in tuffaceous sandstone above seams which are full of coalified pine cuticles. This relationship highlights a point made by Dryden,20 and remade by Hayatsu et al.21 that ‘there had been no incontrovertible evidence to support any theory of coalification.’ This has been stated here because the listed observations strongly imply that not only can large quantities of carbon-rich sediments be accumulated rapidly in catastrophic conditions, but that the same sediments can be coalified rapidly.
_The Mount St. Helens volcanic eruption as a depositional model for coals appears particularly obvious from the widespread occurrence of volcanic tuffs and associated clay minerals resulting from devitrification of tuffs in the coals and inter-seam sediments of the Newcastle and Rosewood-Walloon coalfields. Where tuffs are not apparent, their previous existence is often suspected because of the widespread distribution of clay minerals which potentially have been derived from ash falls.11,17 Since depositional relationship between these coals and volcanism can thus be established by the fact that the majority of the clays associated with these coals are common derivatives of volcanic ash, then similarly a relationship between volcanism and rapid coalification of these seams can be established on the basis of laboratory experiments in which it has been shown that such clays seem to act as catalysts for the rapid coalification of carbon-rich materials. Furthermore, the non-relationship of peat to coal can thereby be demonstrated, since the present of large amounts of clay throughout these coal seams disassociates them from being descendants of peat swamps, particularly cold environment peat swamps, which are virtually devoid of clays.
_Mechanisms for rapid coalification
_Figure 10b. A closer view of one piece showing, from left to right, tuffaceous sandstone still clinging to the log, bituminous (black) coal, and the woody brown coal of the bulk of the log.
See Figure 10c.
_Karweil22 reported that he had produced artificial coal by rapidly applying vibrating pressures to wood. Subsequently Hill23 reported that he had also manufactured artificial coal through rapid application of intense heat. While both these studies used simulated conditions that are applicable to coalification in areas of tectonism and volcanism, such as the coal seams at Newcastle and Oakleigh, recent work by Hayatsu et al.,21 is even more applicable. In their study, Hayatsu and his colleagues at the Argonne National Laboratory, Illinois, USA made simple coals by heating lignin to about 150°C in the presence of montmorillonite or illite clays. Running that procedure for periods ranging from two weeks to nearly a year, they discovered that longer heating times produced higher rank coals, and found that the clays appear to serve as catalysts that speed the coalification reaction, since the lignin is fairly unreactive in their absence.
_In summary, the relevant aspects of the work of Hayatsu et al.21 are:
_Softwood lignin heated with clay minerals (particularly montmorillonite) at 150°C for two to eight months in the absence of oxygen was readily transformed into insoluble materials resembling coals of various ranks.
Longer reaction times produced materials resembling vitrinites of higher rank.
Simple pyrolysis of lignin without clay at 350 to 400°C yielded only char (fusinite?).
Using kaolinite or illite, independently or mixed with montmorillonite, produced similar results.
_Figure 10c. A closer view of the other piece showing, in cross section, the bituminous (black) coal on the log’s circumference and along a clay filled fracture.
_They concluded, therefore that natural clay minerals are important for coalification because they act as catalysts.
_They also noticed that:
(a) in the presence of clay activated by acid, the reaction of lignin to form coaly materials was highly accelerated, even at only 150°C (four weeks instead of two to four months!); and
(b) loss of catalytic action of clays occurred when the reaction was carried out in the presence of air.
_Thus their overall conclusion was that coal macerals can be produced rapidly from biological source material by a clay-catalyzed thermal reaction in periods of only two to four months (sometimes one month).

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Algae to oil
creation.com/algae-to-oil
Algal ‘slurry’ turns to crude oil in minutes
by Jonathan O’Brien and Dr Carl Wieland
_Scientists in the US have worked out how to convert algae into crude oil in less than 60 minutes. Looking much like pea soup, a mixture of green algae and water is subjected to a temperature of 350°C and pressure of 3,000 PSI, which breaks the algae down into oil and gas. The scientists learned that a mixture of up to 80 to 90% water made the best algal ‘slurry’ for the process.
_Just like crude oil that comes out of wells, the resultant oil can be easily refined into aviation fuel, gasoline, diesel and other products, and the gas can be converted to natural gas, with multiple uses such as household heating and cooking, and powering cars.1
_It has been widely believed for decades that ‘fossil fuel’ oil and gas took millions of years to form from algae and plants
It has been widely believed for decades that ‘fossil fuel’ oil and gas took millions of years to form from algae and plants (and other buried organic material—see box), after being slowly trapped in rocks and subjected to the earth’s heat and pressure over eons.
_Heat and pressure suffice to form oil in ultrashort time periods
However, we now know that the millions of years are unnecessary. This industrial process (which does not involve chemical reagents) shows that heat and pressure suffice to form oil in ultrashort time periods. And both heat and pressure are ‘naturally’ available when organic material is buried2 deep within the earth, which would have happened on a vast scale at the time of the Genesis Flood. The thousands of years since then are thus far more than necessary to generate the huge fossil fuel deposits of the present day.
_Interestingly, a high proportion of water is needed in the process of turning algae into oil. The evidence suggests that some of our fossil gas and oil came from vast algal blooms that occurred in the waters of the year-long global Flood, caused by volcanic activity altering the chemical balance and temperature of the water. We know that algal blooms occur today during times of environmental stress. Huge quantities of algae would have been catastrophically buried within sedimentary deposits during the Flood—about 4,500 years ago.
_Ironically, whenever evidence such as this shows conclusively that fossil fuels would not require vast ages, reports often feature phrases like, ‘Process does in minutes what nature takes millions of years to do’.
_Is all crude oil from buried plant or algal material?
_Almost certainly not. Some oil deposits, especially those from Venezuela, contain high levels of vanadium, believed to be the result of its preferential accumulation in marine organisms, particularly shellfish.
_Note that buried vegetation subjected to heat and pressure may first become coal, which can also form in short time periods. Coal can itself become oil if subjected to still higher temperatures and pressures. For example, the Bass Strait oil deposits in Australia bear the chemical signature of having been derived from the geographically nearby Gippsland brown coal deposits. It is believed that the oil is forming right now as the coal seams are thrust deeper into the earth.3
_Also, there is evidence to suggest that some oil may form directly from methane gas from deep within the earth. Some oil is found in igneous rocks, where nothing seems to have been buried in sediment. Microbial action has been suggested as one likely agent in its formation.4
_References and notes
1 Rickey, T., Algae to crude oil: Million-year natural process takes minutes in the lab, pnnl.gov, 17 December 2013. Return to text.
2 Thus preventing ongoing exposure to oxygen, which would result in decomposition, not oil formation. Return to text.
3 Snelling, A.A., The recent origin of Bass Strait oil and gas, Creation 5(2):43–46, 1982; creation.com/bass-gas. Return to text.
4 Wieland, C., Oil not always a ‘fossil fuel’, Creation 32(2):56, 2010; creation.com/oil-not-always-fossil. Return to text.

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COAL
(Catastrophism.com search results. I mark more promising results with this sign: > )

10. [EXTENSIVE DEPOSITION] On the Disproportion between Geological Time and Historical Time. Part Two - of Earth, Fire and Water [SIS C&C Review]
_ ... that period. Identical rock extends from Texas eastwards to Ireland, and from Ireland across Europe to Egypt, Israel and Georgia. It even occurs in western Australia, resting, as in Britain, on glauconitic sands and characterised by the same black flints and peculiar fossils. Throughout the geological record it is clear that the abnormal conditions which gave rise to these distinctive formations prevailed world-wide. The same is true of other types of rock. The 'St Peter Sandstone' and its correlative formations cover virtually the whole of North America. Bituminous ____coal predominates in the Upper Carboniferous, where it occurs extensively from Texas all the way to the Donetz ____coal basin, north of the Caspian Sea. The Columbia Lava Plateau covers an area of 80,000 square miles and in places reaches a depth of over 1 mile, the uniformity, flatness and extent of the formation all showing that it was extruded in successive flows over a very brief period. The lava of one such flow is estimated to have covered a distance of 200 miles in a few days [18. Much

80. [BURNING] Monitor [SIS C&C Review]
_Much of the mountainous country in northern China, from Manchuria to the Kazakh border, is covered in ____coal seams which lie close to the surface. These often ignite spontaneously and it is estimated that up to 200 million tonnes of ____coal are being incinerated each year.

52. [GEOLOGIC COLUMN] Monitor [SIS C&C Workshop]
_The greatest extinction? New Scientist 25.1.92, pp. 51-55 The geological boundary between the Permian and Triassic periods records the largest extinction the world has ever known, with 96% of all species disappearing in a catastrophically short time. The earliest rocks after the extinction are dull silty sediments which accumulated in deep water all over the world and indicate that the bottom fauna took a remarkably long time to recover compared to the open sea. A sudden alteration in the proportion of carbon isotopes indicates that there was massive oxidation of ____coal shales, which it is suggested was due to a large fall in sea levels which exposed the shales to erosion. The oxygen content of the atmosphere would have fallen drastically, causing the extinction of terrestrial vertebrates and eventually the seas became anoxic so both terrestrial and marine life perished by suffocation. The fall in sea level was followed by an even more spectacular rise in the early Triassic but there are no explanations at present. However, Derek Ager claims this extinction is exaggerated because the specialists who study one period have little knowledge

63. [STRATA] Basinger's Lecture on the Eocene Forests of the Canadian High Arctic [SIS C&C Workshop]
... High Arctic. The Eureka Sound Group is widely scattered in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Many areas feature a transition from black marine muds to basal volcanics, with deposits often right on top of Palaeozoic rocks. Fossil plants are most abundant in mid to late Palaeocene to possibly early Eocene strata. The botanist looks for ____coaly layers interbedded with 'rocky ribs'. In this region's early Tertiary forests, the Metasequoia was dominant. The plant community was akin to today's cypress swamp in Florida. Trees were deciduous, with the plants often forming ____coal deposits. Plant life was similar from Alberta to Ellesmere Island; there was remarkable uniformity on both sides of the Arctic Circle. Fossil plant discoveries included birch-like plants, members of the elm, walnut, sycamore, and ginger families, cedar, rare pines and horsetail ferns. As for reports of gigantism in High Arctic leaves, Dr. Basinger says the evidence is lacking. There had been some larger leaf development but nothing unusual by modern standards. Newer deposits in the Eureka Sound Group are not deformed by orogeny and have

32. [THIN LAYERS] Reconsidering Velikovsky [SIS C&C Workshop]
... long period of time, and the fact that erosion would have reduced them considerably if such impacts had been taking place over the postulated long periods of time. He mentioned the limit to the electric charge sustainable by a body, and concluded by saying that craters on planetary bodies and their satellites have been shaped by volcanic and electrical forces as well as impacts.
_Saturday morning Milton Zysman and Peter von Bitter: Cyclothems
_Frank Wallace read a paper by Milton Zysman presenting the idea that cyclothems (complex, repetitive layers of sedimentary rock and ____coal belonging to the Carboniferous Era) are the result of annual depositions of melting water and particulate debris produced by retreating dirty continental ice sheets. Zysman claimed that each sedimentary cycle, usually composed of sandstone, clay, ____coal and shale (in ascending order), occurring in as much as 100 similar cycles, took one year to form per cycle, reducing the ages of these formations as much as 60 Myrs. He questioned whether these could have formed over a long period by sea or glacier; whether ____coal could have been

5. [THIN LAYERS; COMETARY] Society News [SIS C&C Workshop]
_Zysman dealt specifically with the Cyclothem, the enigmatic outcrop in the Carboniferous in which ____coal seams are found. The many repeated layers of shale, sandstone, clay, ____coal and limestone defy a uniformitarian explanation and Zysman is of the opinion that even Velikovsky's tidal wave explanation is not enough. The Carboniferous is thought to have been a time of warmth and swamps with luxuriant plant growth turned into ____coal by slow incursions of the sea over thousands of years. In complete contrast, Zysman's ____coal and all its associated layers is extraterrestrial material, churned in a comet's tail and deposited on Earth at the time of a catastrophic

>>>116. [YOUNG COAL] The Inexact Science of Radiometric Dating [SIS C&C Review]
_ ... the rate of C 14 production. For the radiocarbon age of gaseous inclusions in Cretaceous strata see Radiocarbon Vol. 8 (1966). Gaseous inclusions in Eocene strata believed to be ca. 50,000,000 years old were dated to 30,000 years ago. (See same ref.) A Diprotodon jaw from Orroroo, South Australia was dated at 6,700 by radiocarbon techniques. The animal is thought to have become extinct many millions of years ago (Radiocarbon Vol. 5 (1963). Specimens of ____coal from Spain thought to be tens of millions of years old were radiocarbon dated to 5,025 and 4,250 years ago by Gifsur-Yvette testing labs. (Radiocarbon Vol. 8 (1966).
40. R. V. Gentry, Science Vol. 184 p. 66 Note 16 (1974).
41. H. Faul, Nuclear Geology p. 10 (1954).
42. De Vries, Lilley, Franey, Phys. Rev. Letter. Vol. 37 p. 481 (1976).

125. [C14 DATING] Scientific Dating Methods In Ruins [The Velikovskian]
_ ... extra carbon dioxide and, in so doing, would have made their ages much greater than they should have been. These are but a few examples of how wildly inaccurate the radiocarbon technique can be. When errors of this magnitude are found in the literature, we have a clear indication that something is wrong. These anomalies, and others reported below, will illustrate that this dating methodology contains problems. The radiocarbon dating technique is, perhaps, accurate dating back no more than 50,000 years. However, dinosaur bones, ____coal and oil that are supposed to be millions of years old have yielded radiocarbon dates. (8) Based on this methodology, these dates are not possible. J. Ogden, the director of a radiocarbon dating laboratory in Wesleyan University in Ohio, stated that the investigator is first asked what date he will accept for the material he brings to be dated; then, when a figure is obtained that comes near this date, it is duly reported -- together with tolerance values -- to make the test appear honest. According to Ogden

128. [C14 DATING] The Testimony of Radiocarbon Dating [Velikovsky Archive Website]
_ ... of the second millennium that terminated the Middle Kingdom must also have disrupted all processes that underlie the carbon dating method. On the one hand much radioactivity and radiation must have been engendered as the consequence of interplanetary discharges, and thus any organic material of a date after the catastrophe would appear disproportionately younger than the material from earlier periods. On the other hand, the general conflagration that accompanied the cosmic catastrophe must have caused contamination of the air by carbon from burning forests, and even more so by burning fossil carbon in oil and ____coal, besides the contamination of the air by the products of volcanic eruptions, which were simultaneous on all continents. Such intrusion of non-radioactive carbon into the atmosphere would have disturbed the C-12/C-14 balance in the sense of making any organic material that grew and lived after the catastrophe appear in the carbon test as older and belonging to an earlier age. Thus two phenomena of opposite effect have acted in the catastrophes, and depending on the preponderance of one of the two factors, the objects subjected to test would appear younger or

>83. [ICE AGE] Monitor [SIS C&C Workshop]
_ ... in its caves. One small fissure yielded the remains of a wolf among the bones of 33 distinct species, all indicative of the warm period which succeeded the last stages of the last glaciation. Unfortunately, radiocarbon tests on the wolf suggested a much earlier date of 10,000 years ago. The presence of a snail proved that the deposit could not be earlier than 8,400 years ago. It was eventually suggested that the fossils must have been contaminated by water carrying much older carbonate deposits from the surrounding rocks.
_Problematic ____coal mine fossils source: Scientific American Sept. 1988, p. 75
_One of the richest fossil discoveries of the decade has been in a ____coal basin in central France. It has much in common with the contemporaneous site of Mazon creek near Chicago, including the problem of reconstructing the environment in which the plants and animals lived. The faunal evidence tells a contradictory story as marine, freshwater and terrestrial animals were found together. Theories of tidal estuaries are propounded but the ancient sea was thought to be far to the south,

>74. [PANGAEA] Ice Caps, Continental Shift and the Break up of Pangaea [SIS C&C Review]
_From: SIS Chronology& Catastrophism Review 1997:1 (Oct 1997) Home¦ Issue Contents Ice Caps, Continental Shift and the Break up of Pangaea Melvin A. Cook
_Since my article in C&C Review [1 I have done further work on the ice cap model of continental shift, including the suggestion that possible contributions by heavenly bodies might be involved. It now seems likely that meteorite impacts may have contributed to the process of the split up of Pangaea under ice cap pressure. In particular, I believe that key impact sites can be identified at (i)Franz Josef Land in the Arctic, (ii) Black Hills, South Dakota, iii) Verkhoyanski Range, (iv) Yucatan, (v) Lake Maracaibo (Venezuela), (vi) N. end of Gulf of Bothnia, (vii) Carpathian Mountains, (viii) Caspian Sea, (ix) Aral Sea and (x) Lake Victoria (Africa). In [1 I suggested that Pangaea was pear-shaped and circled the globe. I still think it was pear-shaped but extended only about 3500 miles over the South Pole and 4500 miles over the North pole, leaving roughly 5000 miles of ocean between ends. It may have been about 20,000 miles long, 5,000 miles wide at the equator, 7,300 miles wide across the North Pole and 3,700 miles wide across the South Pole. As outlined in that article, once the supercontinent split, sea water injection at the base of sediments lubricated the slip plane below them (by lowering the softening and melting points of rocks and also 'greasing' the flow surface), facilitating the process of continental shift. There has since been dramatic evidence from deep boreholes in support of this theory. The following is taken from section 8 of a 1993 AAAS review dealing with the project 'Kontinlemtales Tiefbohrprogramm der Bundesrepublik Deuchland'. The KTB project had planned a drill hole 12.5 km deep but encountered 'unexpected' difficulties at 6-7.5km [3. The drill hole was the second deepest ever drilled. It provides dramatic proof of the predicted sea water injection mentioned above and the model of Continental Shift described here. In spite of difficulties, KTB yielded valuable information: 'Predicted' electrical conduction turned out right, KTB encountered 'much higher temperatures than expected', KTB failed to find structures 'predicted from seismic wave patterns' but the 'strength of the rock increased normally' until reaching a depth of '6 to 7.5km'. At that depth it encountered 'great volumes of saline water somewhat concentrated above [or more than] normal sea water'. These observations confirm the model of Continental Shift given 40 years ago but improved in several revisions since then. Clearly the great quantities of salt water were encountered at the level of ocean bottom, confirming predicted injection of sea water under Pangaea and continents at the level of ocean bottom. The higher than normal temperature gradient also proves recent catastrophic building of the Alps: excess heat would not be generated in the slow movements of Plate Tectonics theory. Even frictional heating generated by catastrophic earth movements millions of years ago would be lost by thermal conduction in a small fraction of 'geological time'. Clearly rapid thrusts under great frictional resistance and within recent time caused the excess temperatures at depth in the Bavarian Alps. Emphasised in [2 is the fact that ____coal and oil form rapidly - in years, not millions of years, by high pressure and temperature, without putrefaction involved at all. Section 17 of the AAAS review [4 describes studies by EXXON scientists providing a model for continuous generation of oil in the environment found in the KTB project. The EXXON model is like (but must supplement, not replace) the 'sudden deep burial' model. It cannot alone account for the major oil deposits of Mississippi and Persian basins - but it can explain many others such as those at Rangely, Colorado and the huge gilsonite deposits of Utah west of Rangely formed by destructive distillation of oils due to excess heating. One also needs to consider injection of sea water without complete separation of salt and water to account for the many hot springs such as 'Old Faithful' and 'Steamboat Hot Springs' of Yellowstone National Park, Lava Hot Springs, Idaho, many hot springs along Wasatch Range and in Southern Utah, and dozens of other [malady curing] hot springs of the world. The [implied] EXXON model of continuous crude oil synthesis in hot saturated rock is as follows: dead matter from sea life slurried in ocean water flows under granite at the ocean bottom, i.e. at the level of compressive failure of granite. Under the hot aqueous and catalytic rock environment this dead matter forms oil and water fairly rapidly, with the latter removed by insolubility in oil. Chemical separation of oil and water from the dead matter is exothermic and occurs spontaneously in the hot water saturated rock. Gravity and heat are thus the driving forces for this cycle of continuous burial and conversion of dead sea matter into oil and water, slurried in salt water to flow under the crust, then upward into suitable separate traps for products, oil and water. In fact, this could be nature's way of protecting the deep sea environment for the great mass of deep sea life. Melvin A. Cook
_References 1. M.A. Cook, 'Earth Tectonics Viewed from Rock Mechanics', C&CR, Vol

20. [ALASKA] The Alaskan Jigsaw Puzzle [Science Frontiers Website]
_Present thinking is that this portion of the state was close to the geographic north pole during the late Cretaceous. But this is the period when the huge ____coal deposits were formed on the Arctic slope. Much of this ____coal comes from evergreens, which could not have survived in high latitudes due to the lack of sunlight. So, the pieces of the puzzle are at hand, but their travels are a mystery. (Anonymous; "Fragmented Alaska," Open Earth, no. 17, 1982.) Reference. For more on exotic terranes, see ESR9 in our Catalog: Inner Earth. Ordering information here. From Science Frontiers #28, JUL-AUG 1983.© 1983-2000

131. [WARM ARCTIC] Long Term Violation of Uniformitarianism Demonstrated by Fossil Discoveries in Polar Regions [SIS C&C Workshop]
_ ... remarkably little since the end of the Triassic 200 MYA; all the features of today's crocodilians were present in creatures that lived 80 MYA. Study of contemporary alligators and crocodiles can serve as a test of the reasonableness of the proposed polar Everglades. [A major paper on this topic will be written by Ian C. Johnson by mid-October 1991. Some of the research highlights will be offered shortly for your titillation. Evidence of warmer climates that once prevailed in the Arctic was brought to light in the nineteenth century with the discovery of ____coal in the Canadian Arctic Archipeliga. Some time later, remains of tropical vegetation were found in far northern Greenland which oddly has never been glaciated. In the early 1970's, dinosaur fossils were uncovered on the North Slope of Alaska. Paleolatitude of the north coastal plain of Alaska in late Cretaceous time 70 MYA was several degrees to the north of today's latitude. Dr. Basinger, in his spring 1987 Ottowa lecture, referred to mid-Miocene walnut shells found on Banks Island (situated north of the Mackenzie Delta), revealing that warm

26. [ANTARCTICA] THE LATELY TORTURED EARTH: PART VI: BIOSPHERICS: 26.Fossil Deposits [Quantavolution Website]
... Quantavolution.Org E-MAIL: contact@quantavolution.org TABLE OF CONTENTS THE LATELY TORTURED EARTH: Part VI: Biospherics by Alfred de Grazia
_CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX FOSSIL DEPOSITS
_ In coarse quartzose sandstones of stream channels of Antarctica's Transantarctic Mountains, fossil bones of the definitive reptilian genus, Lystrosaurus, were found. Deemed typical of Lower Triassic forms, it has been uncovered also in South Africa, India and China. In the sandstone, mudstone and white quartz pebbles are intruded along with the bone fragments. Logs and ____coal are at the same depth. Volcanic material is above and below. Remains of between 40 and 50 specimens are among the more than 400 specimens of other species in the same deposit. Numerous fossil relations have been shown between South America and Southern Africa, though not yet the Lystrosaurus. The China parallel introduces properly the Pangean connection. Pangean world distributions of many species of flora and fauna, both fossil and living, can be traced. Living species that have no way of traversing present-day barriers are discovered to exist on both sides of the barriers, as the tigers of ...

30. [ANTARCTICA] No title [Aeon Journal]
_The Finaeus map also correctly has the larger portion of Antarctica closer to [Hapgood's repositioned] Antarctic Circle than the smaller section. Interestingly, the National Geographic fifth edition "Atlas Of The World" on page 221 says, "The hypothesis that Antarctica was some 200 million years ago, part of a supercontinent called Pangaea is supported by the discovery of geologic formations and fossils of extinct land plants and vertebrates that correspond to those on other continents. No landmass in Antarctica's present position could have supported the vegetation that has become the low-grade ____coal in the Transantarctic Mountains, perhaps the world's most extensive ____coal formation." A well-known Antarctic fossil plant is Glossopteris, a flora dating from the earliest part of the Permian but which had vanished by the Triassic. Glossopteris included bug trees with annual growth rings, an indicator of seasonality; these flora were fossilized into ____coal beds on several parts of Antarctica. Coal deposits, with Glossopteris leaves and conifer needles, have been found within 250 miles of the South Pole. I have demonstrated that polar latitude has not in the geological

138. [ANTARCTICA] The Afar Triangle As the Nether Reaches of Eden and Babel [Aeon Journal]
_But Velikovsky objected not so much to crustal movements themselves as to the uniformitarian gradualism of the usual drift scenarios. He also objected to specific points in those scenarios. (For example, how could there be ____coal deposits in Antarctica, if, as is usually supposed, Antarctica was already near the South Pole at the time those deposits were laid down?) The fact is that Velikovsky himself looked with some favor upon the idea of horizontally-moving continents. He often mentioned that it was he, long before continental drift became such a fad, who had stressed in conversation with Harry Hess how obvious it was that South America had once been joined to Africa. This was in the mid-1950's, at a time when Hess was still far less

145. [ANTARCTICA] Book Shelf [Aeon Journal]
_ ... Mill is a labyrinth of brilliant but deliberately evasive scholarship..." (7) However, Hancock also intentionally dissociates his ideas from that of Plato's Atlantis beyond the Pillars of Hercules, knowing full well that his approaches closely parallel that of the Greek philosopher, albeit with significant differences. Since present-day mapping of the world's oceanic basins shows no trace of sunken continents, the most obvious land choice for a lost civilization is a relatively ice-free Antarctica. It has mountains and lakes, rivers and streams, fossilized forests and beds of ____coal and coral, all depicting a far more temperate, if not tropical, climate in a distant age that our dating methods have placed well within the paleontological epoch of mankind. So, Plato's narrative of a land beyond the Pillars of Hercules would be of a land far beyond anything dreamt of by most all ancient and current philosophy. And even the present writer was once privately challenged by Velikovsky many years ago to find mythic evidence of activity in the southern sphere -- a dare which I never took seriously. It is

162. [ANTARCTICA] Discussion Comments From the Floor [Aeon Journal]
_ANTARCTIC ANOMALIES SPEAKER: IAN C. JOHNSON
_Conventional geological wisdom holds that Antarctica has been consistently icebound for the past 15 to 30 million years. When plate tectonics became widely accepted in the 1960s, continental drift placed Antarctica for a period of geological time in warm latitudes. Antarctica undoubtedly had a warm distant past, as ____coal seams running through the Transantarctic Mountains are some of the most extensive on earth. The new plate tectonics/continental drift paradigm featured Antarctica attached to South America and Australia during late Cretaceous and early Tertiary time 65 million years ago. Antarctica was a warm continent 70 to 40 million years ago, covered with forests and surrounded by tropical waters. Conventional wisdom seemed to receive confirmation with the discovery of the first bones of a land mammal (polydolopus) on Antarctica(1). An American research team headed by Dr. William

>98. [CO2; ANTARCTICA] Monitor [SIS C&C Review]
_ ... to carbon dioxide levels. These were both higher between 53 and 59 Myrs ago. A likely source for the carbon dioxide was widespread volcanic activity in the North Atlantic at the time, cause unknown. The subsequent drop in carbon dioxide levels may have been rapidly effected by a biological feedback mechanism whereby huge blooms of plankton absorbed much of the excess gas. Evidence for this is found in ocean sediments from the period. There is also evidence of 'the large-scale burial of organic matter on land and in coastal regions, with swamps and ____coal formation'. Both the onset of the high levels of carbon dioxide and the circumstances of its decline appear somewhat catastrophic. More Polar Problems New Scientist 22.1.00, p. 21, 8.4.00, p. 21, 2.9.00, p. 25, New York Times 26.10.99 During the Cretaceous period, high temperatures are supposed to have caused dense forest growth on all continents, including Antarctica. Strange, then, that Antarctica is the only continent where extensive ____coal beds failed to form. Nowadays Antarctica is, of course, covered in

41. [POLAR] The Dinosaurs Of Winter And The Polar Forests [Science Frontiers Website]
_Coal beds are also known from Spitzbergen and Antarctica. The vision of dinosaurs roaming polar Edens evokes many questions. If the polar regions were indeed 10-20 C warmer than now, what could have survived at the Equator? The dates given above (3 and 45 million years ago) for polar heat waves are well after the 65 million-year demise of the dinosaurs. This suggests that the biosphere recovered very well from the KTB catastrophe. Why, then did the dinosaurs succomb so completely? From Science Frontiers #75, MAY-JUN 1991.©

>>>31. [CHEMISTRY; FORMATION] Letters [SIS C&C Workshop]
_ ... hydrogen and deposits its SiO2 as quartz or chert, plugging off its own conduit and creating explosive conditions. This is the set-up for volcanic explosion, which often blows out siliceous ash, the formerly deposited SiO2. It also transfers silicon for development of granite and may force the rise of mountains and the underplating of the mountain belt with siliceous (quartz-rich) rock to form a continental 'keel'. I think the loess is originally volcanic, being the explosion product after the deposition of silica from rising silanes. Curiously, ____coal can also be attributed to the hydrogen/silicon carbide reaction. After silane has fully reacted with water, its accompanying hydrocarbon gas along with hydrogen emitted by oxidation of silane in the absence of free oxygen, if able to rise further, will sooner or later encounter oxygen. If the oxygen supply is meagre it will all be taken up by the hydrogen, and free carbon in finely divided form will be released in the water produced by the oxidation of the hydrogen component. If peat and other terrigenous plant debris accumulations stand

2. [CHEMISTRY] Anhydride Theory: A New Theory of How Petroleum and Coal are Generated [Aeon Journal]
_From: Aeon V:2 (Apr 1998) Home¦ Issue Contents Anhydride Theory: A New Theory of How Petroleum and Coal are Generated C. Warren Hunt
_Does Coal Generate Methane? Or Does Methane Generate Coal?
_Abstract
_Methane effuses from Earth's interior and pervades crustal terranes of crystalline, volcanic, and sedimentary rock. The author advances the theory that the hydrogen, carbon, and energy provided by this methane are utilized by hyperthermophyllic bacteria and archaea to strip hydrogen from the methane, thusly generating petroleum and adding carbon in the ____coalification of peat. Alkane mixtures that make up petroleum from the stripped methane are "anhydrides." The "terminal anhydride," pure carbon, may be deposited as the added carbon that changes peat to ____coal in the ____coalification process, or it may be deposited in the absence of peat as veins of asphaltite in non-sedimentary terranes. Methane effusion from Earth's interior is a worldwide phenomenon of which hardrock miners and geologists are fully aware. Nevertheless, finding it in previously unsuspected places still evokes expressions that verge on wonder. For

6. [COOK; CHEMISTRY] A Life's Work? [SIS C&C Review]
_Chapter VIII considers evidence of fluid pressure in wells, a subject of crucial importance to catastrophists. As Cook notes, 'Abnormal and abnormally high pressures are common, particularly in new oil fields' (p. 167), yet these cannot be convincingly explained by orthodox theories of gradual formation and accumulation of oil and gas in permeable rocks. In chapters IX and X, it is argued that oil, gas and ____coal have been formed by sudden deep burial of organic material: animal life (primarily marine) for the first two and vegetation for the last. Coal, he says, is simply dehydrated wood, with the grade of ____coal reflecting the degree of heating and pressure it has undergone. By detailed analysis of the chemistry of ____coal, he demonstrates that only pressure and temperature are involved in the process, with time neither necessary nor relevant as a factor. He quotes an interesting case where pit timbers in a Pennsylvania mine which was

14. [TYPES OF WOOD IN COAL] Focus [SIS C&C Workshop]
_ ... Heiberg and Ellesmere Islands lie within the Arctic Circle, on the same latitude as northern Greenland and are at present wastes of permafrost, with the only vegetation ground-hugging and dormant during the four months of winter darkness. Thick layers of sands, silts and ____coals, said to be from the early part of the Tertiary Period (i.e., immediately following the extinction of the dinosaurs) have long been known from here and finds of fossil wood and stumps are not uncommon. The commonest types of trees which have fossilised associated with the ____coal seams are the dawn redwood and the swamp cypress (now only found in China), and these are taken to indicate that lowland swamps were common in the region. The total regional flora is described as 'incredibly pervasive': it grew throughout the far north. From this pattern of vegetation it is therefore inferred that the world was free of ice at this period and that the ____coal seams were formed in the usual uniformitarian fashion. The discovery in 1985 of the remains of a complete 'fossil' forest adds a new dimension

15. [CALCULATIONS] The Carbon Problem [Science Frontiers Website]
_The Carbon Problem
_The "carbon problem" seems to hit the scientific creationists the hardest, but it also has interesting implications for today's earth. Consider first where the carbon in the earth's crust resides: Petroleum 201 x 10^18 grams Coal 15 Limestone 64200 Biosphere 0.3 In this article, these figures are made more understandable by physical descriptions of some of the truly colossal deposits of oil, ____coal, and limestone. For example, in the Canadian Rockies, the Livingstone limestone was deposited 2000 feet deep on the margin of the Cordilleran geosyncline but thins eastward to about 1000 feet in the Front ranges. "...it may be calculated to represent at least 10,000 cubic miles of broken crinoid plates." Two implications are: Even if the earth's biosphere were completely converted into oil, ____coal, and limestone each year, the earth would have to be far older than the 6000 years desired by the creationists,

24. [FORMED FROM PLANTS] Pterodactyls in the Mesozoic: A Flap in Time [Aeon Journal]
_The fascinating Carboniferous Period was sandwiched between the Devonian and Permian during the latter, or "Upper" half, of the Paleozoic Era, where plantlife thrived almost uncontrollably, evidently laying down the thick ____coal seams and oil pools which we mine and exploit today. [3 This unruly and rampant growth in the warm greenhouse of the Mississipian and Pennsylvanian Epochs during the Carboniferous bespeaks massive amounts of carbon dioxide in Earth's early atmosphere to permit such frenzied photosynthesis. We shall, however, concern ourselves primarily with the Mesozoic Era, that itself is divided into the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous ("chalk-like") Periods, an era which was singularly and uniquely the Age of Dinosaurs. Here, too, substantive ____coal beds were

27. [ARTIFICIAL COAL] Monitor [SIS C&C Workshop]
_"Lignin + Clay = Coal" source: NEW SCIENTIST 1.9.83, p. 623 Scientists at the U.S. Department of Energy have recently been able to produce ____coal artificially by heating lignin (the substance that binds plant cells together) and various clays. The clays appear to catalyze the conversion of lignin to ____coal: low grade ____coal can easily be produced by such methods by heating at 300 F for as little as two weeks. High grade ____coals require longer heating. This research is a significant advance in our knowledge of how ____coal is produced. Previously

29. [ASSOCIATIONS] Physics, Astronomy and Chronology [SIS C&C Review]
_ ... of the history of the planet we should find a column of sediments averaging 150 km in height; however the sedimentary column is usually less than 1 km. In this column we find fossils and we are told that the simplest specimens belong to the earliest epochs and the more complex to more recent times. Yet such perfect columns do not really exist anywhere. In fact we occasionally find the order reversed with old rock on top of young rock (based on the fossil evidence). Associated with these "unconformities" is often a ____coal interface. Now ____coal is very interesting from the catastrophist's point of view. Together with fossils and petrified wood it is often found mingled with lava or iron-rich layers. Iron, in its turn, is generally associated with meteorites. A combination of iron catalyst, heat, pressure and vibration on vegetable matter produces fuel, oil or ____coal depending on whether water is trapped in the reaction or not. Heat seems to be the crucial factor in the production of fossils. As part proof of this heresy at this point in his

38. [ABIOTIC] Bookshelf [SIS C&C Review]
_The Deep Hot Biosphere by T. Gold 1999, 249 pp., $25 A book about iconoclastic scientist Gold's revolutionary theory of a robust biosphere deep within the Earth. Gold has long claimed that ____coal, oil and gas and life itself originate deep within the Earth.

>49. [TREE RINGS] A World with One Season: Part II [SIS Internet Digest]
_From: SIS Internet Digest 2001:2 (Sep 2001) Home¦ Issue Contents A World with One Season: Part II
_DWARDU CARDONA continued his talk on A World with One Season focussing on tree rings, and whether they always point to there being seasons with which they are associated. Apparently fossilized trees do not always show tree rings. Carboniferous trees lack rings, as do trees found in ____coal swa[m]ps. Trees found in the Permian period, and also in Canada, Europe and Asia often have weak tree rings. South American trees often have strong tree rings. In the Triassic period, and in the Amazon, there are found a mixture of trees both with and without tree rings. Some tropical trees do not grow rings, some grow 3 or 4 rings per season. In the dry season, rings may be missing. What all this shows is that tree rings are not determined by seasons, but by water and growing periods. How did proto-Saturn warm its southern pole as effectively as it warmed the north polar region? One possibility

160. [SHATTERCONES] Oberg's Unscientific Method [The Velikovskian]
_ ... no hypervelocity motion employed, yet here the impact came from above, as with meteorites, with the points of the cones pointed downward, away from the force. This indicates that, if the force came from below, as the gas bubbling theory requires, it would produce cones with their apexes pointing upward-just like those found in what are supposed to be impact craters. With another similar test, he also formed cone structures in defiance of what impact theorists say is needed -- hypervelocity impacts. Bucher further presented shatter cones made of bituminous ____coal, which, of course, could not be explained by meteorite impact. He explained that high-pressure gas, impregnating the pores of permeable rock, will make rock so brittle that it will react to stresses by forming shatter cones. In essence, by straightforward geological and mechanical explanations and demonstrations, Bucher produced cones and presented shatter cones via recognisable geological forces. R. S. Dietz simply refused to accept Bucher's evidence and ignored these fundamental contradictions to the impact hypothesis, claiming that shatter cones could only be created by hypervelocity impacts

>98. [CO2; ANTARCTICA] Monitor [SIS C&C Review]
_ ... to carbon dioxide levels. These were both higher between 53 and 59 Myrs ago. A likely source for the carbon dioxide was widespread volcanic activity in the North Atlantic at the time, cause unknown. The subsequent drop in carbon dioxide levels may have been rapidly effected by a biological feedback mechanism whereby huge blooms of plankton absorbed much of the excess gas. Evidence for this is found in ocean sediments from the period. There is also evidence of 'the large-scale burial of organic matter on land and in coastal regions, with swamps and ____coal formation'. Both the onset of the high levels of carbon dioxide and the circumstances of its decline appear somewhat catastrophic. More Polar Problems New Scientist 22.1.00, p. 21, 8.4.00, p. 21, 2.9.00, p. 25, New York Times 26.10.99 During the Cretaceous period, high temperatures are supposed to have caused dense forest growth on all continents, including Antarctica. Strange, then, that Antarctica is the only continent where extensive ____coal beds failed to form. Nowadays Antarctica is, of course, covered in

40. [GAS] Methane hydrate: past friend or future foe? [Science Frontiers Website]
_ ... fizzes at its edges, and soon wastes away to a puddle of water? If you wish, you can accelerate the substance's demise by touching a match to it; it is packed with potential energy. The substance is methane hydrate, and it is found in prodigious quantities in oceanic sediments. Each cubic centimeter of methane hydrate contains about 160 cubic centimeters of methane at standard conditions; it is a concentrated source of natural gas. In fact, methane hydrate deposits in the world's oceans hold twice as much carbon as all the ____coal, oil, and gas reserves on land! But methane hydrate may be much more than a future fuel source; it may have been humanity's savior in eons gone by; it may be our future nemesis. You see, methane hydrate is very unstable; changes of temperature or pressure on a global basis can trigger the release of immense volumes of this greenhouse gas from oceanic deposits. For example, when the Ice Ages lowered ocean levels by locking up water in the advancing ice caps, pressures on ocean-bottom methane hydrate lessened

90. [NITROGEN] A Comprehensive Theory on Aging, Gigantism and Longevity [Catastrophism & Ancient History Journal]
_ ... data. The first is an appreciable variation in the amount of nitrogen between the pre-ice age and the post-ice age scenes. We draw on Figure 4. We see that the biosphere, as represented by reservoirs 2 through 6, contains only about percent of the nitrogen contained in the atmosphere, eliminating at once these reserves as possible modifiers. Categories 8 and 9 refer to nitrogen compounds bound in igneous rocks, which are therefore essentially immobile in a 1500 year period. Category 7 refers to nitrogen compounds in shale, oil, and ____coal. The Paleozoic reservoirs are pre-Flood/pre-ice age, and hence are excluded as post-Flood modifiers of atmospheric nitrogen. Cooler post-Flood post-ice age oceans would absorb more nitrogen from the atmosphere than warmer oceans, and a change from 60 degrees down to 38 degrees F. for average oceanic temperature will result in about 50 percent more oceanic nitrogen than for the warmer seas. However, the dissolved nitrogen in the current oceans still is less than 1 percent of the atmospheric nitrogen. The conclusion is, then, that atmospheric nitrogen was a

102. [COOL CLIMATE] Monitor [SIS C&C Workshop]
_Cool ____coal New Scientist 22-29.12.90, p. 13 Scientists have generally assumed that a narrow tropical region of the Earth has remained relatively stable during changing climate regimes. Now an investigator has shown that the geological record indicates that in the Carboniferous period temperatures were much cooler than today and in the Cretaceous, much warmer. The Carboniferous is a particularly interesting case because there were vast glaciers around at the time which indicates cooler temperatures yet there were also the vast tropical forests which supposedly formed the huge deposits of ____coal in modern Europe and North America

1. [CATASTROPHISM] Evidence for the Marine Deposition of Coal [SIS C&C Review]
_From: SIS Review Vol IV No 2/3 (Winter 1979/80) Home¦ Issue Contents Extra Evidence for the Marine Deposition of Coal Harold G. Coffin
_Harold G. Coffin is Professor of Paleontology at the Geoscience Research Institute and Andrews University, Michigan. He holds a Ph.D. in Zoology from the University of Southern California, and is a member of the AAAS.
_He has previously published articles in the Journal of Paleontology and the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America. The presence of the marine annelid Spirorbis in ____coal measures presents serious difficulties for the prevailing uniformitarian theory of the autochthonous origin of ____coal.
_EDITORIAL PREFACE: Theories of ____coal formation fall into two groups. The autochthonous ("native to the soil") theory is that generally espoused by uniformitarians, explaining the formation of ____coal deposits from local vegetation that slowly accumulated in swamps. The allochthonous ("from another soil") theory preferred by catastrophists seeks to explain the evidence of sudden deposition (e.g. fossilised leaves, insects and animals in ____coal seams), mixed

28. [CATASTROPHISM] Book Reviews [SIS C&C Workshop]
_ ... northern hemisphere Pleistocene mammals - huge animals suddenly dying out in unexplained circumstances, with piles of remains washed up in caves. For simplistic explanations, however, it must be hard to beat that of the jellyfish impressions in the Ediacara Sandstones of the Flinders Ranges in southern Australia - 'stranded on the beach, baked in the sun and then covered by a wash of fine sand by the next tide.' That would make a good bone to pick over in a very elementary logics course! Inevitably, there is the traditional view of ____coal formation and, using this theory as a base, Attenborough deduces other 'truths'. The great thicknesses of ____coal seams are seen as 'impressive evidence of the abundance and persistence of the early forests.' Catastrophism, at his shoulder, could whisper, 'impressive evidence of the scale of catastrophes.' Talking of the dinosaur extinction as recorded in the rocks of the Montana badlands. Attenborough writes that 'a thin deposit of ____coal (which) rules a black, precise line' just above the dinosaur level, 'must represent a short-lived

61. [CATASTROPHISM] Bookshelf [SIS C&C Review]
_ ... readable prehistory have been erased, perhaps by world-shaping catastrophes. In substantiation, Cook discusses the observed imbalance of radiocarbon, the abundance and influx of uranium in the oceans and helium in the atmosphere, and the instability of palaeomagnetism in the rocks, and reinterprets the systematic discrepancies in radioactive 'clocks'. ====Continental drift is described as a recent catastrophic rupture of "Pangaea" and the sudden shift of its fragments (continents) under the tremendous forces of polar ice-caps. Crustal uplifts and depressions, shield-geosyncline-welt inter-relationships, the nature and occurrence of ____coal, oil and fossils, overthrusting and stacking of strata, e.g. in the Canadian Rockies, and other geological data provide further support. Critical mathematical analysis of orthodox theory is provided throughout the book. The author was until 1970 Professor of Metallurgy at the University of Utah and is widely known for his contributions to leading scientific journals, which, in addition to those concerning his speciality, include articles on solid-state physics, geophysics, electro-thermodynamics, ion-exchange and quantum mechanics. DE SANTILLANA, G.& H. VON DECHEND:

97. [CATASTROPHISM] Monitor [SIS C&C Workshop]
_ ... scale in the order of magnitude of thousands of years to erode a formation with canyons a hundred feet deep and an elaborate system of rills and gullies. Yet these now exist in pumice laid down at the time of the Mount St Helens explosion in May 1980 and have therefore been formed in less than four years. Trees torn from slopes above Spirit Lake by a giant water wave are being deposited on the lake bottom, some in an upright position. Future research of this phenomenon may give more insight into the catastrophic formation of ____coal, which similar upright trees have sometimes been found. It will be interesting to see how much publicity is given to such facts by the uniformitarian establishment.

78. [ILLOGIC] The SIS, its history and achievements: a personal perspective [SIS C&C Review]
_Then we came to ____coal and its formation. Trees fell over, they settled, rotted, were crushed and heated and eventually ____coal was formed. "Please Miss, why isn't ____coal being formed today as trees fall over and rot?"

3. [VELIKOVSKIAN] Chapter VII: The Earth [The Age of Velikovsky] [The Age of Velikovsky] [Books]
_COAL
_We shall start with a discussion of ____coal, since it is familiar to most people and is of great recent interest especially due to a decrease of availability of black liquid gold (oil) and an increase in price of solid gold. Also, ____coal geology is a field where at least one specialist investigated various ideas about the origin of ____coal and concluded that Velikovsky's and a similar view by Nilsson were the most reasonable. Velikovsky described some properties of ____coal in his book Earth in Upheaval 5 a partial reply to those who

4. [VELIKOVSKIAN] Velikovsky on the Formation of Coal [Pensee]
_From: Pensée Vol. 2 No 3: (Fall 1972) "Immanuel Velikovsky Reconsidered II" Home¦ Issue Contents Velikovsky on the Formation of Coal Wilfrid Francis
_Coal: Its Formation and Composition --Wilfrid Francis --London, Edward Arnold Ltd., 1961
_Editor's Note: Wilfrid Francis, M.Sc., Ph.D., ER.LC., F.C.S., is a consulting chemist and fuel technologist and author of the standard book, ____Coal: Its Formation and Composition (London, Edward Arnold Ltd, 1961). Now retired, Francis pursued scientific research and development regarding fuels and fuel technology for nearly 60 years. He acted as a director of several large research organizations, lectured in a number of London colleges, and authored several scientific and technical books well received by the scientific community. The first edition of ____Coal appeared in 1954. In his preface to the second edition (1961), Francis explained that the views of several authors, Velikovsky included, forced him to revise his book. We print here several excerpts, followed by brief comments Francis prepared for Pensee

7. [I.V. REFERENCE] Alternatives in Science: The Secular Creationism of Heribert Nilsson [Kronos]
_Velikovsky was pleased to refer to Nilsson's extensive documentation of the catastrophic evidence in German ____coal deposits....

>>>33. [COMETARY] THE LATELY TORTURED EARTH: ATMOSPHERICS: 7.Fire and Ash [Quantavolution Website]
_This idea of fire and water ... seems to recall tradition of an event of which the memory has endured. It is certainly odd that the indications manifested by a seaflood should have suggested the idea of a deluge of fire [4. Carli cites Clement of Alexandria for the observations that Stenelas, father of the king of the Ligurians, lived at the time of the fire of Phaeton and the flood of Deucalion. So fire and flood occurred together. Reasoning from effect to cause, Carli then assigns the ____coal deposits of the world to burning and water acting in quick succession, a theory now coming into prominence again. He argues that only a comet could burn up the world, drop vast amounts of water, and bring great tides at the same time. Probably this line of argument will stand up: a large body encountering Earth, even if it were not dropping water or ice, would bring both conflagration and flood. Whether it crashed or not, the effects would still be similar. Donnelly produces an abundance of legendary

>59. [COMETARY] William Comyns Beaumont: Britain's most eccentric and least known Cosmic Heretic [SIS C&C Review]
_ ... stars' that were comets. 17. Stonehenge, Avebury Circle and similar monuments were astronomical instruments. 18. Central American legends (and cultures) were contemporaneous with those of the Old World. 19. The intercalary 'five evil days' were cursed because they coincided with a world disaster and the ending of an age. 20. The serpent, dragon, winged-globe, caduceus, and other ancient symbols are traceable to cometary catastrophes. 21. Religious festivals are dated by cometary catastrophes. 22. Cometary conflagrations are the origin of ____coal deposits. 23. The ancients had a true 360 day year. 24. The planet Venus underwent great changes in color, diameter, figure, and orbit in the time of Ogyges. 25. Quetzalcoatl (Coculkan-Hurakan) commemorated the cometary dragon for the Meso-Americans. Beaumont's theses are almost identical to those of Velikovsky. Yet Beaumont developed and published them as early as the 1920s and 1930s. Could this extraordinary similarity have been a freak accident? If this correspondence was not a fluke, how could it be explained?

>100. [MAJOR IMPACT] CHAOS AND CREATION: CHAPTER 02: HIGH ENERGY FROM SPACE [Quantavolution Website]
_ ... within recent times, possibly in the Jovean or Mercurian period. Approaching tangentially the Intruder would have scorched through 1100 miles of atmospheres at a speed of 20+ miles per second at temperatures (~ 7500 c+) greater than the Sun's surface. From 8 to 60 second seconds' exposure would be suffered below its path. It would occupy at an 80-mile elevation over 100 degrees of the total dome of the sky (180). It would theoretically generate then and upon impact biosphere residues enough to produce all of the known ____coal and oil reserve in the world. The temperature at the moment of impact would rise to over 200,000 C. "An actual collision would raise a column of vapor and debris that easily could measure one thousand miles in diameter at the base, and possibly larger at the top after the fashion of the atom bomb explosions. This column might tower something like five thousand miles above the earth, the higher particles doomed to float out beyond the reach of gravity This catastrophic column would be "a gigantic chemical laboratory,

146. [BERMUDA IMPACT] THE LATELY TORTURED EARTH: PART II: EXOTERRESTRIAL DROPS: 11.Encounter and Collisions [Quantavolution Website]
... meteoroid with Earth is given at about 100 km/ second, with an approach from the northeast. The collision would involve an energy approximately equal to that of the Earth's rotation (1.2 x 10 37 ergs) and would readily provoke an interruption of the rotation, an axial tilt, a slippage of the crust above the mantle, and an immediate orogeny around the ruin of the blast crater. The scenario includes many details that need not be repeated here. For instance, the hypothetical Bermuda intruder would theoretically account for all the ____coal, gas and oil of Appalachia and the North American continental shelves by instant burning in passage, deep burial and dampening upon impact folding, and tidal land thrusts and water flooding. Even cutting back its diameter to 280 km, the intruder upon impact would raise a column of vapor and debris that easily could measure one thousand miles in diameter at the base, and possibly larger at the top after the fashion of the atom bomb explosions. This column might tower something like five thousand miles above the earth, the higher particles ...

>>>103. [EXPLOSION CRUSTAL WAVES] Pleiongaea: A Myth for all Seasons [Aeon Journal]
_ ... planetary nova. If there were a series of such reactions, as other critical stages were attained, heavier and heavier petroleum products would be produced, contributing to protracted oily rains over several geological epochs, and we shall discuss the textbook chemistry of these reactions presently. At the same time, the pressure wavefronts produced by such conflagratory explosions would compact and distort the surface of Pleiongaea to form grotesque continental rises and oceanic depressions. But only many, many eons later would steam and water vapor condense to fill those depressions. The compacted ____coal and the petroleum deposits found in the Arctic and the Antarctic would be a consequence of these series of reactions. And, with the loss of a major amount of the atmosphere which had compressed the planetary core of Pleiongaea, a relaxation and expansion of the core would split the crustal surface into subcontinental-sized fragments, generating most of the Precambrian shield volcanos in the process. Ultimately the youthful, sanguine Pleiongaea would cool sufficiently to where atmospheric steam would condense, and warm rains would fall to fill the lowlands. There would be a

137. [YOUNG ORBITAL BELT] Solar System Studies (Part 2) [Aeon Journal]
_ Recently a toroidal dust belt was detected which apparently is orbiting Earth. The announcement hazarded no guesses as to why it is there. Could this toroidal dust belt be a residual effect of former close encounters between Earth and other planet-sized bodies? It is assume that this belt has not been there more than a few millennia or it would have been blown away long ago by the Solar Wind.
_Earth geology over the last 600 million years indicates there were a number of paleobiotic eras of different lengths with all but the present era lasting for tens of millions of years. The interfacing of eras was punctuated by widespread changes to biota, such as mass extinctions and appearance of radically new genera. The Earth's tectonics also underwent vast changes between eras, including fossilization of biota, formation of vast ____coal deposits, changed distribution of land and ocean and mountain building. During these long eras of stable biota the normal uniformitarian agents such as freezing and thawing and erosion by wind and water wore down coasts and highlands so that the paleographic norm was warm climate, marshy lowlands with few deserts or highlands and shallow oceans. These uniformitarian processes are very much at work today and will wear away existing mountain ranges in a few million years. Evolution appears to be dormant during each era and, therefore, is not a uniformitarian process.

>109. [RAPID DEPOSITION] Contents [Alternative Science Website]
_ ... Uniformitarian geology, "The Present is the Key to the Past". Yet careful analysis of the rocks of the geological column shows that nowhere in the world today are there rocks forming that are anything like the historical rocks of the Earth's crust. In reality, the present entirely fails as a key to the past. Moreover, recent experiments in France and the US have shown that stratified rocks can form rapidly and simultaneously-- not over millions of years. Chapter 8. An Element of Unreality There is conclusive evidence that ____coal beds forty or more feet in thickness can form rapidly, not over millions of years. If ____coal can form rapidly, why not other sedimentary rocks? Chapter 9. When Worlds Collide The idea of catastrophism-- rapid formation of rocks-- is anathema to conventional geology. Yet there is mounting evidence for catastrophic processes. Examples include the young age and rapid building of the world's mountain chains in historical times; the gigantic extent of certain rock formations, requiring singular, acute causes; and the occurrence of extinctions on ...

111. [RAPID DEPOSITION] CHAOS AND CREATION: CHAPTER 03: COLLAPSING TESTS OF TIME [Quantavolution Website]
_ ... have accumulated a supply representing less than 100,000 years of flow, and when the flow off the continents is calculated as a negative exponential curve, the age of the ocean becomes holocene [10. For most sediments would have been dropped or transported in the earliest years. Sedimentary rocks are given very great ages in part because the "normal" visible rates of deposit are slow. But a single cometary train might lay down a "hundred million years" of till or detritus-clay and gravel-in a day [11. A ____coal deposit can be launched by a high-energy "bulldozer" in a matter of hours, covered over the next day by clay and baked until ready; it does not need the "millions" of years of development insisted upon by uniformitarian sedimentary calculations [12. Petroleum deposits are not proof of long ages, whether terrestrial or extra-terrestrial [13. Geologist E. M. Larrabee studied a deposit of maximum thickness of one meter [14. It was laid down by the Shenandoah and Potomac Rivers at Harper's Ferry (Va.

152. [RAPID DEPOSITION] THE LATELY TORTURED EARTH: PART VII: DIMENSIONS OF QUANTAVOLUTION: 31.The Recency of the Surface [Quantavolution Website]
... occur, denote rapid deposition. Volcanoes spurt up along the forward edges of movement in vast numbers and volcanic fissures vent even more than cones. All of the sea and some of the land is lava-covered, an igneous composition. Another large part of the land and ocean shelves is of the original basalt base of the earlier all-land system and is called shield rock or Precambrian exposures. The biosphere that has been destroyed by drowning, burning, burial, poisoning, and freezing exhibits itself largely in a few assemblages, as fossils, ____coal, fusain, and some types of oil. The metals coming from earlier explosions among the planets fall in dust or globules, mixing with the turbulence as deposits. Repeated falls of dust, terrestrial and exoterrestrial, mingle with the slowing floods to give the Earth its patina of soils in favored places. Here, and also at one time in the drowned slopes of debris off the shores of continents and around submerged volcanic heights, most of the surviving and adapting biosphere found its home. Who needs more time than several thousand ...

76. [CREATIONISM] The Evolutionist-Creationist Battle: A Threat to Catastrophist Evolution (Focus) [SIS C&C Workshop]
_From a catastrophist point of view much of the evidence produced by the Creationists is scientific. Fossil fish showing signs of being buried alive, evidence for the rapid formation of ____coal, geophysical evidence that radiometric dating is invalid, coprolites, the sudden appearance of forms in the fossil record - all these facts we are long familiar with as evidence of world-wide catastrophes. In the hands of the Creationists, however, they are rapidly becoming inextricably mired in the slough of religious bigotry because they are presented as evidence of a unique Noachian Deluge catastrophe in a world created during six days only a few thousand years ago. In such a context they can be faulted as unbiassed scientific observation and the religious motivation behind

9. [FLOOD] THE BURNING OF TROY: PART TWO: GEOLOGICAL ISSUES: CHAPTER TEN: INDIANS OF ILLINOIS [Quantavolution Website]
_The stratigraphies show effects separating older layers of artifacts an hearths from newer ones; that is, silt, loess, and clay. Again these are in thin layers. 5) The area generally exhibits frequently strata of lignite and ____coal near the surface, which is mined farther north. These can be scenes of catastrophic combustion (See e. g. State Coal Circ. 332, table 5,3 and Francis, COAL, new ed.) 6) The stratigraphy of the area in general permits the hypothesis of catastrophic swirling cross-currents of flood occurring in a short period of time (i. e. weeks or centuries), depositing in rapid succession thin layers of loess, silt, clay, and organic matter that are noted everywhere. Whereupon

>96. [FLOOD & VOLCANISM] Society News [SIS C&C Workshop]
... formation of the Dungeness headland and the erosion of the cliffs at Dover, geologists dictate conditions in the past by assuming the same constant rates. These two examples actually lead back only about 4000 years even so and a recent paper shows that the Dover-Calais gap, from which erosion could subsequently take place, was breached by a catastrophic flow lasting only weeks or months. Even if some of the evidence conflicted with the received wisdom, Garton had found that there was fierce opposition if it were suggested that the evidence was viewed differently. Coal formation near Edinburgh is explained on the usual basis of trees growing in a swampy estuary millions of years ago, although the evidence of volcanoes at the same time makes it obvious that the time period was not one of slow, quiet, uninterrupted deposition. Five fossilised tree trunks found inclined at the same angle and direction in a quarry imply that they, and the layers of sand and gravel they are in, were dumped all at once by a current of enormous proportions, yet the rock layers are supposed to have been

>86. [TIDAL WAVE] Monitor [SIS C&C Workshop]
_ ... have been preserved with fine detail of their outer layer intact. 3. The fossil beds are marine shale with non-marine layers (i.e. freshwater) but, almost hidden in the verbosity of the Nature description, is the admission that the animal types do not "conveniently correspond" with the sedimentary layers. 4. As a brief afterthought, with no explanation, it is stated that the collection includes various flora, which are named. These only happen to be pteridosperms- woody land plants - now extinct and typical of Carboniferous ____coal deposits. In summary, we have here a collection of well preserved specimens, a fact that deserves an explanation. Marine and non-marine life forms are found together entombed; land plants are found also mixed with marine animals. These land plants are typical types found in ____coal strata and ____coal can have an auto- or allochthonous origin. In this case all the evidence points to a tidal wave type event similar to those described in Earth in Upheaval. Earthquake Electricity source: New Scientist 24.6.82, p. 846 We commend this ...

99. [TIDAL WAVES] QUANTAVOLUTION: COSMIC HERETICS: Part 3: Chapter 11: CLOCKWORK [Quantavolution Website]
_ ... assemblages, surprisingly recent C14 datings, the simultaneous devastations of civilization (using Schaeffer), excavations of warm-weather life forms and human settlements in impossibly cold zones of today, Indian traditions of orogeny and other quantavolutionary events, changes in magnetic orientations, and the large-scale ash levels on ocean bottoms. He did not know Otto Schindewolf's work, then appearing, which tied the great periods of biosphere destruction to cosmic events and consequent radiation storms. He followed Dunbar's Historical Geology in examples of very early disastrous effects. He advanced the idea that ____coal was formed from biosphere masses propelled and dumped by huge tidal waves, without specifying which waves and when, and used Heribert Nilsson's studies of German ____coals to prove his case. He relied heavily, too, upon the early English catastrophists. He used also the work of American creationists. In a few lines, he expressed his feeling that the uneven lengths given to the ages were "basically wrong;" The remark is strange, cryptic, confused. He "does not suggest either a lengthening or a shortening of the ...

106. [ICE OR TIDAL WAVES?] Monitor [SIS C&C Workshop]
_ ... today were formed by the same "glaciation" process, and it has enabled geologists to produce a model to explain and predict the distribution of oil. What is interesting is the fact that hitherto there has been no convincing evidence to prove that the "Gondwana" ice sheets (which affected the southern continents during the Late Carboniferous and Early Permian periods) extended as far as the Arabian peninsula. In conventional thinking the entire world is supposed to have been enjoying a particularly warm climate during the Carboniferous period, producing all those lovely ____coal layers, but this proof of the extent of the glaciation in the southern continents does rather stretch that supposition. Indeed, the extent of the glaciations combined with the evidence for an allochthonous origin of ____coal (produced elsewhere- and interspersed with marine sediments) question the concept of glaciation. Are these things, as Velikovsky has suggested (Earth in Upheaval, chapter IV), evidence of tidal wave rather than ice?

>104. [ICE BLOCKS] THE LATELY TORTURED EARTH: PART III: HYDROLOGY: 15.Ice Fields of the Earth [Quantavolution Website]
_They acted as gigantic bulldozers that caused mountain ranges to be thrust forward and buckled and folded upwards. Giant floods from the rapid melts swept the earth. The globe fractured and caused the continents to spread apart rapidly. The Atlantic Ocean and the Arctic Ocean were opened up. In the end the surface of the earth was greatly changed. A great many land and life forms, together with cultural centers, were destroyed in the process. As the huge ice blocks descended, they turned over the biosphere and folded it to create ____coal and oil deposits in a geological "instant." Waters that were buried deeply are still rising under pressure. Yet the end came quickly, occupying a few years, not millions of years. The legends are definite but seemingly too rich. The northern peoples talk of terrible ice falls and winters, far beyond historical experience, and perhaps long before history as we gauge it. In Old Norse, the language of the Edda epics, snow is called eitr-ornir, "white pus of the dragon." Martin Sieff writes

143. [AERIAL TRANSPORT] THE LATELY TORTURED EARTH: PART I: ATMOSPHERICS: 3.Hurricanes and Cyclones [Quantavolution Website]
_ ... of some fossil assemblages would indicate aerial rather than water transport. Although he does not follow through, F. Hibben provides a rare passage dealing with the immense deposits of bones that he witnesses. "Throughout the Alaskan mucks, too, there is evidence of atmospheric disturbances of unparalleled violence." [7 The Cumberland Cavern catastrophic life dump shows no evidence of water transport [8. Probably as many collections of animals and vegetation have been gathered and flung in heaps by winds as by water. In seeking the origins of some ____coal deposits, catastrophic winds are a prime suspect, along with rock and water thrusts. What can create deposits can remove them. Heavy winds, operating tidally or cyclonically, can blow away pre-existing structures. Contemplating the early ages of human settlement, one may wonder at the frequent absence of primordial sites. Here, as everywhere in the mythicized realms of science, there is a vision that is perhaps false, of excavating sites layer upon layer until arrival at bed rock, and thereupon pronouncing the last ruins to be the first

>93. [MYTH] Monitor [SIS C&C Workshop]
_In South Australia huge ____coal deposits were mythologised about by the aboriginal people long before they were 'discovered' by Europeans. A giant ancestor had set fire to so many trees that he left behind charcoal and a treeless desert. When mining began it was found that one of the ____coal basins was indeed burnt out. Fancy that! New Scientist 26.10.91, p. 22

8. [HUMAN BONES IN COAL] Anthracite Man? [Science Frontiers Website]
_Anthracite man?
_It is not surprising that the discovery described below has not made its way into mainstream scientific literature. Most mainstream anthropologists would shy away from human bones reputed to come from anthracite ____coal measures hundreds of millions of years old! Our source is a small newspaper in eastern Pennsylvania. Scientifically acceptable hominid fossils are no older than a few million years at most. So, when anyone cognizant of prevailing paradigms enters the Greater Hazelton Historical Society Museum, he is astonished to find an: "...elaborate display of rock-like objects found in the anthracite region by Ed Conrad who insists, based on his 10 years of exhaustive research and scientific testing, that he possesses undeniable evidence that they are petrified bones. "Society officials undoubtedly are impressed because a small sign displayed on a front window carries some very large words:' This is the only museum in the world where petrified bones, found between ____coal veins,

12. [MAN FROM COAL AGE] Ed Conrad's Web site [SIS Internet Digest]
_From: SIS Internet Digest 2002:1 (Sep 2002) Home¦ Issue Contents Ed Conrad's Web site www.edconrad.com
_When pseudoscience meets Honest Science. Scientists fear evidence that man is as old as ____coal. Physical evidence currently exists that proves man inhabited the earth while ____coal was being formed, shaking the very foundations of who we really are and how we really got here. An assortment of human bones and soft organs, transformed to rock-like hardness, has been discovered between anthracite veins in Pennsylvania. Since one of the golden rules of geology is that ____coal was formed during the Carboniferous-- a minimum of 280 million years ago -- it means that man has existed multi-millions of years before the ... insectivore from whom the evolutionists claim we eventually evolved.

11.[GOLD CHAIN IN COAL] Michael Cremo: Forbidden Archaeology: The Hidden History of the Human Race [SIS Internet Digest]
_However, Michael then detailed a case in which a human skeleton, anatomically similar to modern man, was found beneath a solid layer of slate. The rock strata in question was 300 million years' old! Then there is the story of the gold chain found by Mrs. S. W. Culp of Morrisonville, Illinois, in 1891. She was placing ____coal on a fire when one block fractured to reveal the item still attached to both pieces of rock. The discovery was included as a news curio in an edition of the Morrisonville Times. From this article Michael was able establish that the ____coal had come from a mine in the same state as the aforementioned 300-million-year-old human skeleton. Moreover, the ____coal itself was dated to around 260-320 million years' old. Michael Cremo's presentation was quite simply stunning. If he is correct in his findings it means that the emergence of humanity has

107. [ARCHEOLOGY] Monitor [SIS C&C Review]
_Stone Age ____coal and drink Scientific American Dec. 96, p.22, New Scientist 8.6.96, p.7 Charcoal pieces found near Palaeolithic settlements in France have proved to be ____coal. By the Neolithic times people were making wine - dregs were found in a 5000BC jar in Iran, 2000 years earlier than previously thought.

18. [TREES IN COAL] Velikovsky's Critics and Catastrophism [Pensee]
_When dealing with earth surface features, too, it is being recognized that landforms such as deltas, for example, may, certainly on the small scale, be produced in a matter of days(5). Since many sedimentary deposits consist of gravels or coarse conglomerates over considerable areas and depths, again a more catastrophic than uniformitarian approach is needed in interpreting conditions at the time of their formation. This might also be considered true for paleostriata fossil trees in ____coal deposits (i.e. tree trunks or casts cutting across several strata) indicating a rapid rate of sedimentation (6). REFERENCES 1. M. Gardner, Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science (Dover Publications, New York, 1957), 33. The book as a matter of interest is subtitled-- "The curious theories of modern pseudoscientists and the strange, amusing and alarming cults that surround them. A study in human gullibility." 2. D. Cohen, Myths of the Space Age

51. [TREES IN COAL] Don't Rock The Ark [Kronos]
_Letters Jan. 24, 1977: SIR: K. M. Reese made no comment concerning the implications of the unique discovery of a baleen whale skeleton in a vertical orientation in a diatomaceous earth quarry in Lompoc, Calif. However, the fact that the whale is standing on end as well as the fact that it is buried in diatomaceous earth would strongly suggest that it was buried under very unusual and rapid catastrophic conditions. The vertical orientation of the whale is also reminiscent of observations of vertical tree trunks extending through several successive ____coal seams. Such phenomena cannot easily be explained by uniformitarian theories, but fit readily into an historical framework based upon the recent and dynamic universal flood described in Genesis, chapters 6-9. Larry S. Helmick, Ph.D. Professor of Chemistry, Cedarville College, Ohio C&EN Letters March 21, 1977: SIR: Dr. Helmick, how dare you imply that our geology textbooks and uniformitarian theories could possibly be wrong! Everybody knows that diatomaceous earth beds are built up slowly over millions of years as diatom skeletons slowly settle

112. [TREE IN COAL] homepage • e-mail [Mythopedia Website]
_If the geological column takes millions of years to form, why do we find trees, forty feet tall, in the vertical position of growth in ____coal-seams? A fossilised tree, in position of growth, was found in the ____coal measures at Blackrod in Lancashire. The original tree must have been surrounded and buried by sediment which was compacted before the bulk of the tree decomposed, so that the cavity vacated by the trunk could be occupied by new sediment which formed the cast. This implies a rapid rate of sedimentation around the original tree. [1 There are 'graveyards' of millions of land-dwelling creatures who suffered death simultaneously, indicating that many fossils were formed during catastrophes. [2 The best evidence that pressure rather than time is the cause of ____coalification

150. [TREE IN COAL] THE LATELY TORTURED EARTH: PART V: RIFTS, RAFTS AND BASINS: 25.Sediments [Quantavolution Website]
_He alludes to numerous wide differences in rates of sedimentation: a 38-foot fossil tree stands amidst the late Carboniferous Coal Measures of Lancaster;

147. [COAL DINOSAUR FOSSIL] On the Possibility of Instantaneous Shifts of the Poles [Aeon Journal]
_The two researchers then examined a series of fossils, including dinosaur bones recovered from a ____coal mine in Utah, which had reportedly yielded ancient DNA. In every case, according to Bada, the aspartic acid had degenerated to such an extent it makes it extremely unlikely that the DNA could indeed be ancient.

81. [DINOSAUR TRACKS] Were All Dinosaurs Reptiles? [Kronos]
_BRONTOSAURUS WAS A MAMMAL
_Millions of years are required for a piece of wood to become a piece of ____coal. But to make of it a piece of ____coal when ablaze, only a few hours are needed. When footprints of pre-historic animals are found in the ____coal surface of quarries, it is not necessary to assume that millions of years must be involved in the calculations. Continents appeared and disappeared; mountains rose and fell; rivers lost their beds; and deep within the Earth, all geological strata boiled and turned over. An animal fled upon the ground to save itself, or hid in a cave. The woods burned

87. [DINOSAUR TRACKS] Monitor [SIS C&C Workshop]
_Dinosaurs leave their mark source: Scientific American September 1989, p. 133
_Studies of dinosaur footprints reveal that carnivores were agile, springing, sprinting hunters, but most dinosaur fossil prints show only a walking gait, rarely a running one. Curiosities include many sites in which the dinosaur trampling was 'dense enough to disturb the sedimentary layers themselves.' (How, we wonder, are such sites dated?) In addition, ____coal seams in Utah have ceilings bulging with casts of dinosaur footprints 'made across what was once the upper surface of a layer of swamp peat'. We are asked to believe that these soft footprints remained undisturbed long enough to fill with silt and slowly turn to stone during the thousands of years of the sea's slow incursions. Is this really a credible hypothesis? Or do these dinosaur footprints impinging into ____coal seams not reopen the case for catastrophic conditions to have supervened, both in the formation of the ____coal and the fossilisation of the

64. [METEORITES] Fossil Meteorites [Science Frontiers Website]
_While meteorites are found in profusion in some specially favored surface deposits (Antarctica and Australia's Nullarbor Plain), there are very few records of any being found in the immense volumes of ____coal, gold ores, and other geological materials that have been mined down the centuries. Of course, many meteorites escaped the notice of miners who were looking for something else. Nevertheless, few have been reported from strata more than a few thousand years old. (See ESI8 in Neglected Geological Anomalies.) It is therefore surprising that a veritable lode of fossil meteorites has been found in a limestone quarry at Kinnekulle, in southern Sweden. "During the sawing of a few thousand cubic meters of Ordovician limestone into 2-3 cm thick slices, 25 fossil meteorites have been found.

65. [CONCRETIONS] From Nature's Atelier [Science Frontiers Website]
_ ... differ in form and/or composition from the matrix. Often, they form around an impurity of some sort, say, a tiny fossil. If concretions were all nicely spherical or crystalline in shape, we might be able to explain them as we do with the oyster's pearl and winter's snow-flake. Unfortunately for the theorists, concretions usually come in bizarre shapes-- shapes an avant garde sculptor might appreciate. Not only do concretions come in weird geometries but they may be replicated in prodigious numbers, like the famous Kimmeridge " ____coal money." Additionally, some flint concretions are arrayed in thick chalk beds in amazingly regular three-dimensional arrays that tax the ingenuity of any theorist. To illustrate the extremes of nature's inorganic-chemical imagination, we now provide some illustrations from a recent two-part article in Rocks & Minerals and one of our catalog volumes. (Dietrich, R.V.; "Carbonate Concretions,' Rocks & Minerals, 74:266 and 74:335, 1999. ESA3 in Neglected Geological Anomalies.) Carbonate concretions (" imatra stones") from Finland

>48. [FOSSILIZATION] Society News [SIS C&C Workshop]
_ … the geologist, satisfied to have a mountain with 500 million-year-old rock sitting serenely on top of 100 million-year-old rock with a sharp seam of ____coal between and no sign of the missing 400 million years of rock and many other examples provided Dr Earl Milton with material for his gentle humour and searching criticisms. With snapshots of the mountain concerned and of other interesting items he had collected on holiday as well as fossil bones and a section of a petrified tree (see Review V:I, p. 10, fn.), he proposed and developed the intriguing idea that fossils and petrification seem always to be associated with lava and with heat.